in 1973, the countries of the west faced a new economic hardship when course hero

Why are there hardships in households?

Because each household's need is imperfectly measured by an income or consumption threshold, many households with incomes above the thresholds may still experience hardships, such as hunger, or face high rent payments or heavy medical expenses that prevent its members from buying enough food or fuel.

What are the effects of economic hardship on children?

Economic hardship resulting from income loss, unemployment, job instability, and economic insecurity rather than low income per se is another potential mediator of income effects on child well-being. According to this ‘family stress model,’ economic hardship is associated with parental stress and depression which leads to more inconsistent, unsupportive, harsh, and punitive parenting practices. These reduced quality parent–child interactions, in turn, are associated with emotional and school problems in children (Conger et al. 1994, McLoyd et al. 1994 ).

What are the structural disadvantages of women's crime?

Consistent with the economic marginalization hypothesis, most ethnographic and qualitative studies of women's crime highlight structural disadvantages. These studies typically focus on women offenders only and do not address directly the gender gap in offending. Instead, they conduct an in-depth analysis of the factors that are associated with chronic offending among women. As a group, these studies suggest that poverty, unemployment, and single motherhood combine to create conditions of extreme economic hardship, which in turn are associated with events and conditions of women's lives that increase the chances of a life of crime (Miller 1986, Carlen 1988, Daly 1994, Maher 1997, Baskin and Sommers 1998 ). For instance, several studies emphasize the connections between abuse during childhood, economic hardships, and criminal careers among women (Daly 1994, Maher 1997 ). Other studies show how living in a marginalized community facilitates entry into criminal networks and peer groups, which play an important role in initiating women into lives of crime and sustaining these lifestyles in the future (Miller 1986, Baskin and Sommers 1998 ). Finally, several studies suggest that turning to crime is a rational attempt to support children and other family members when confronted with severe economic hardship (e.g., Miller 1986, Carlen 1988 ). These studies offer rich insight into the social world of female chronic offenders and, as we note in Sect. 5, open the door for the development of theories that can address macro-level as well as social–psychological processes.

Why are nonelites more likely to resist domination?

Under conditions of economic hardship, political turmoil, or cultural conflict, nonelites are more likely to resist domination and to challenge the relationship that exists between education and occupation. Their discontent typically precipitates social change.

How does power struggle occur in society?

In schools, students create their own value system that may be inconsistent with the school's academic goals. The tests and grades administered by schools as a sorting mechanism may be viewed as a way to maintain the status quo, to enforce discipline and order, or to co-opt the most intelligent of the lower classes. In the classroom, students may challenge teacher authority and negotiate teacher power through resistance.

Who argued that the motivation to recognize new technology stems from the external market?

In 1986, Robertson and Gatignon [20] argued that the motivation to recognize new technology stems from the external market. This point is further reinforced by Funk and Methe [21], who found that market uncertainty can impact an organization’s decision to employ technological innovations.

How does conflict theory relate to social change?

By directly addressing the relationship between conflict and social change, ‘conflict theory’ supplements structural functionalism in explaining the behavior of schools in society and in predicting social change. Both theories point to important aspects of the dynamics of social systems. As stressed by structural functionalists, schools do socialize and allocate students, mostly by meritocratic criteria. But conflict theorists are correct in maintaining that nonmeritocratic factors also influence the allocation process. Structural functionalists are accurate in stating that students typically cooperate with teachers in the learning process, but conflict theorists recognize that some students resist authority and rebel. Further, conflict occurs in communities, schools, and classrooms, but it is not always class-based. Relying on the insights of both theories increases our understanding of schools in society.

Land

An aerial photograph of the center of the Stanford University campus in 2008.

Discoveries and innovation

Biological synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – Arthur Kornberg synthesized DNA material and won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959 for his work at Stanford.

People

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Stanford University people and List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Stanford University.