The threat to health by emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases is a reality and the scientific basis for this occurrence, though complex, is slowly being understood. The response of the international scientific community to this situation has been acknowledged as appropriate.
The continual threat to public health from emerging and reemerging infectious diseases (EID) demands sustained attention, international cooperation, and resources. Innovative approaches are needed to improve the laboratory detection, surveillance systems, and control of EIDs in the context of rapidly changing human and pathogen ecology.
Emerging infectious diseases were defined as new, reemerging, or drug-resistant infections whose incidence in humans have increased within the past two decades or threatened to increase in the near future.
Among the major policy domains associated with emerging and reemerging infectious disease outbreaks are surveillance and reporting, immunization, quarantine, travel and immigration restrictions, and restrictions related to the importation of food and animals.
World Health Organization. Regional Office for South-East Asia. (1996). New, Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases: Prevention and Control..
Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases: An Update. By Michelle Gardner. Atthe dawn of the 20th century, cancer, heart disease, kidney disease, cirrhosis,pneumonia, cholera, diphtheria, tuberculosis (TB) and influenza were relentlesskillers.
In fact that had build optimistic conditions and trust to fight and regulate many such diseases in the world. But, plague, yellow fever, influenza, and others have known to be emerging infectious ...
The National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID) aims to protect people from domestic and global health threats. Their scope is broad to include foodborne and waterborne illnesses, infections that spread in hospitals, infections that are resistant to antibiotics, deadly diseases like Ebola and anthrax, illnesses that affect immigrants, migrants, refugees, and ...
The impact of both new and re-emerging infectious diseases on human populations is affected by the rate and degree to which they spread across geographical areas, depending on the movement of human hosts or of the vectors or reservoirs of infections. Travel has an important role in bringing people into contact with infectious agents55. An increase in travel-associated importations of diseases was anticipated as early as 1933, when commercial air travel was still in its infancy56. This has since been demonstrated dramatically by an international airline hub-to-hub pandemic spread of acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis in 1981 (ref. 57), by epidemics of meningococcal meningitis associated with the Hajj, and more recently by the exportation of epidemic SARS (a newly emerging disease) from Guangdong Province, China, to Hong Kong, and from there to Beijing, Hanoi, Singapore, Toronto and elsewhere5(Fig. 3). The persistent spread of HIV along air, trucking, drug-trafficking and troop-deployment routes is a deadly variation on this theme35,36,37.
Tuberculosis is one of the most deadly re-emerging diseases (Fig. 2). The discovery of isoniazid and other drugs initially led to effective tuberculosis cures, empty sanitoria and the dismantling of public health control systems in developed nations. Consequently, by the 1980s, when tuberculosis had re-emerged in the era of HIV/AIDS, local and state health departments in the United States lacked field, laboratory and clinical staff and so had to reinvent tuberculosis-control programmes25. The remarkable re-emergence of tuberculosis was fuelled by the immune deficiencies of people with AIDS, which greatly increases the risk of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosisinfections progressing to active disease, and being transmitted to others. Inadequate courses of anti-tuberculosis therapy compound the problem, leading to the emergence and spread of drug-resistant and multidrug-resistant strains60, and a need for more expensive treatment strategies such as directly observed therapy. It has been known for over a century that tuberculosis is a disease of poverty, associated with crowding and inadequate hygiene. The continuing expansion of global populations living in poverty makes tuberculosis more difficult to control.
Re-emergence is caused by some of the factors that cause newly emerging infectious diseases, such as microbial evolutionary vigour, zoonotic encounters and environmental encroachment. Re-emergences or at least cyclical resurgences of some diseases may also be climate-related — for example, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon is associated with resurgences of cholera and malaria54.
Many diverse factors contribute to their emergences (see Box 1); these include microbial genetic mutation and viral genetic recombination or reassortment, changes in populations of reservoir hosts or intermediate insect vectors, microbial switching from animal to human hosts, human behavioural changes (notably human movement and urbanization), and environmental factors. These numerous microbial, host and environmental factors interact to create opportunities for infectious agents to evolve into new ecological niches, reach and adapt to new hosts, and spread more easily between them.
Emerging infections (EIs) can be defined as “infections that have newly appeared in a population or have existed previously but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range”1. EIs have shaped the course of human history and have caused incalculable misery and death. In 1981, a new disease — acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) — was first recognized. As a global killer, AIDS now threatens to surpass the Black Death of the fourteenth century and the 1918–1920 influenza pandemic, each of which killed at least 50 million people2,3. Of the ‘newly emerging’ and ‘re-emerging/resurging’ diseases that have followed the appearance of AIDS (Fig. 1), some have been minor curiosities, such as the 2003 cases of monkeypox imported into the United States4, whereas others, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which emerged in the same year5, have had a worldwide impact. The 2001 anthrax bioterrorist attack in the United States6falls into a third category: ‘deliberately emerging’ diseases. EIs can be expected to remain a considerable challenge for the foreseeable future. Here we examine the nature and scope of emerging and re-emerging microbial threats, and consider methods for their control. We emphasize that emergence results from dynamic interactions between rapidly evolving infectious agents and changes in the environment and in host behaviour that provide such agents with favourable new ecological niches.
Examples include the associations of hepatitis B and C with chronic liver damage and hepatocellular carcinoma, of certain genotypes of human papillomaviruses with cancer of the uterine cervix, of Epstein–Barr virus with Burkitt's lymphoma ( largely in Africa) and nasopharyngeal carcinoma (in China), of human herpesvirus 8 with Kaposi sarcoma, and of Helicobacter pyloriwith gastric ulcers and gastric cancer50,51,52. Some data even suggest infectious aetiologies for cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus53, major causes of death and disability worldwide. Other associations between infectious agents and idiopathic chronic diseases will inevitably be found.
The burden of morbidity (ill health) and mortality associated with infectious diseases falls most heavily on people in developing countries8, and particularly on infants and children (about three million children die each year from malaria and diarrhoeal diseases alone7). In developed nations, infectious disease mortality disproportionately affects indigenous and disadvantaged minorities9.
In 1962, immunologist and Nobel laureate Sir MacFarlane Burnet wrote that the middle of the twentieth century could be regarded as the end of one of the most important social revolutions in history, reflecting the virtual elimination of infectious disease as a significant factor in social life ( Burnet, 1962 ).
In 1992, a report by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) called attention to the global problem of emerging infectious diseases ( Lederberg, Shope, & Oaks, 1992 ). This was followed by two reports from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that further characterized the issues ( CDC, 1994, 1998 ).
Since 1980, the emergence or reemergence of infectious diseases has had a significant impact on global health and economies ( Binder, Levitt, Sacks, & Hughes, 1999; Morens et al., 2004 ).
The International Health Regulations (IHRs) were adopted in 1969, amended in 1973 and 1981, and completely revised in 2005 at the 59th World Health Assembly to provide a legal framework for international cooperation.
Emerging infectious diseases. • An emerging infectious disease is a one that. is caused by a newly discovered infectious. agent or by a newly identified variant of a. known pathogen, which has emerged and. whose incidence in humans has increased. during the last two decades and is.
Anemia affects approximately 30% of children all over the world. Acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI), urinary tract infections (UTI) and gastroenteritis (GE) are common infectious entities in children.
Nipah virus (NiV) is an ssRNA, enveloped paramyxovirus in the genus Henipaveridae with a case fatality rate >70%. We analyzed the NGS RNA-Seq gene expression data of NiV to detect differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using the statistical R package limma. We used the Cytoscape, Ensembl, and STRING tools to construct the gene-gene interaction tree, phylogenetic gene tree and protein-protein interaction networks towards functional annotation. We identified 2707 DEGs (p-value <0.05) among 54359 NiV genes. The top-up and down-regulated DEGs were EPST1, MX1, IFIT3, RSAD2, OAS1, OASL, CMPK2 and SLFN13, SPAC977.17 using log2FC criteria with optimum threshold 1.0. The top 20 up-regulated gene-gene interaction trees showed no significant association between Nipah and Tularemia virus. Similarly, the top 20 down-regulated genes of neither Ebola nor Tularemia virus showed an association with the Nipah virus. Hence, we document the top-up and down-regulated DEGs for further consideration as biomarkers and candidates for vaccine or drug design against Nipah virus to combat infection.
The impact of both new and re-emerging infectious diseases on human populations is affected by the rate and degree to which they spread across geographical areas, depending on the movement of human hosts or of the vectors or reservoirs of infections. Travel has an important role in bringing people into contact with infectious agents55. An increase in travel-associated importations of diseases was anticipated as early as 1933, when commercial air travel was still in its infancy56. This has since been demonstrated dramatically by an international airline hub-to-hub pandemic spread of acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis in 1981 (ref. 57), by epidemics of meningococcal meningitis associated with the Hajj, and more recently by the exportation of epidemic SARS (a newly emerging disease) from Guangdong Province, China, to Hong Kong, and from there to Beijing, Hanoi, Singapore, Toronto and elsewhere5(Fig. 3). The persistent spread of HIV along air, trucking, drug-trafficking and troop-deployment routes is a deadly variation on this theme35,36,37.
Tuberculosis is one of the most deadly re-emerging diseases (Fig. 2). The discovery of isoniazid and other drugs initially led to effective tuberculosis cures, empty sanitoria and the dismantling of public health control systems in developed nations. Consequently, by the 1980s, when tuberculosis had re-emerged in the era of HIV/AIDS, local and state health departments in the United States lacked field, laboratory and clinical staff and so had to reinvent tuberculosis-control programmes25. The remarkable re-emergence of tuberculosis was fuelled by the immune deficiencies of people with AIDS, which greatly increases the risk of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosisinfections progressing to active disease, and being transmitted to others. Inadequate courses of anti-tuberculosis therapy compound the problem, leading to the emergence and spread of drug-resistant and multidrug-resistant strains60, and a need for more expensive treatment strategies such as directly observed therapy. It has been known for over a century that tuberculosis is a disease of poverty, associated with crowding and inadequate hygiene. The continuing expansion of global populations living in poverty makes tuberculosis more difficult to control.
Re-emergence is caused by some of the factors that cause newly emerging infectious diseases, such as microbial evolutionary vigour, zoonotic encounters and environmental encroachment. Re-emergences or at least cyclical resurgences of some diseases may also be climate-related — for example, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon is associated with resurgences of cholera and malaria54.
Many diverse factors contribute to their emergences (see Box 1); these include microbial genetic mutation and viral genetic recombination or reassortment, changes in populations of reservoir hosts or intermediate insect vectors, microbial switching from animal to human hosts, human behavioural changes (notably human movement and urbanization), and environmental factors. These numerous microbial, host and environmental factors interact to create opportunities for infectious agents to evolve into new ecological niches, reach and adapt to new hosts, and spread more easily between them.
Emerging infections (EIs) can be defined as “infections that have newly appeared in a population or have existed previously but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range”1. EIs have shaped the course of human history and have caused incalculable misery and death. In 1981, a new disease — acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) — was first recognized. As a global killer, AIDS now threatens to surpass the Black Death of the fourteenth century and the 1918–1920 influenza pandemic, each of which killed at least 50 million people2,3. Of the ‘newly emerging’ and ‘re-emerging/resurging’ diseases that have followed the appearance of AIDS (Fig. 1), some have been minor curiosities, such as the 2003 cases of monkeypox imported into the United States4, whereas others, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which emerged in the same year5, have had a worldwide impact. The 2001 anthrax bioterrorist attack in the United States6falls into a third category: ‘deliberately emerging’ diseases. EIs can be expected to remain a considerable challenge for the foreseeable future. Here we examine the nature and scope of emerging and re-emerging microbial threats, and consider methods for their control. We emphasize that emergence results from dynamic interactions between rapidly evolving infectious agents and changes in the environment and in host behaviour that provide such agents with favourable new ecological niches.
Examples include the associations of hepatitis B and C with chronic liver damage and hepatocellular carcinoma, of certain genotypes of human papillomaviruses with cancer of the uterine cervix, of Epstein–Barr virus with Burkitt's lymphoma ( largely in Africa) and nasopharyngeal carcinoma (in China), of human herpesvirus 8 with Kaposi sarcoma, and of Helicobacter pyloriwith gastric ulcers and gastric cancer50,51,52. Some data even suggest infectious aetiologies for cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus53, major causes of death and disability worldwide. Other associations between infectious agents and idiopathic chronic diseases will inevitably be found.
The burden of morbidity (ill health) and mortality associated with infectious diseases falls most heavily on people in developing countries8, and particularly on infants and children (about three million children die each year from malaria and diarrhoeal diseases alone7). In developed nations, infectious disease mortality disproportionately affects indigenous and disadvantaged minorities9.